Sri Lanka has some of the best social indicators in South Asia. Years of responsible investment in the Human Capital has meant that the basic social infrastructure of the Sri Lankan society is well founded. This has been the case despite long years of a Civil War in the country. One reason Sri Lanka did not collapse despite a long Civil War was its better social indicators. Still, Sri Lanka remains a developing country. Its developmental needs are different from the rest of the South Asia which lags behind it in many respects. In recent years, Sri Lanka’s chief developmental goal has been achieving and excelling the South East Asian levels and standards of development after the end of the Civil War. This page offers space for discussing the key developmental challenges facing the various areas of Sri Lanka. It also discusses the various developmental policies Sri Lanka has employed in recent decades. You can join our discussion on Sri Lanka’s developmental issues by posting your articles, research papers, podcasts and video clips on the subject on this Website. We start our discussion with a brief introduction to Sri Lanka.
Sri Lanka: An Introductory Profile
Introduction
The first Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th century B.C., probably from northern India. Buddhism was introduced circa 250 B.C., and a great civilization developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from circa 200 B.C. to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). In the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty established a Tamil kingdom in northern Sri Lanka. The Portuguese controlled the coastal areas of the island in the 16th century and the Dutch in the 17th century. The island was ceded to the British in 1796, became a crown colony in 1802, and was formally united under British rule by 1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changed to Sri Lanka in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatists erupted into war in 1983. After two decades of fighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) formalized a cease-fire in February 2002 with Norway brokering peace negotiations. Violence between the LTTE and government forces intensified in 2006, but the government regained control of the Eastern Province in 2007 and by May 2009, the remnants of the LTTE had been defeated. Since the end of the conflict, the government has enacted an Ambitious program of economic development projects, many of which are financed by loans from the Government of China. In addition to efforts at reconstructing its economy, the government has resettled more than 95% of those civilians displaced during the final phase of the conflict and released the vast majority of former LTTE combatants captured by Government Security Forces. At the same time, there has been little progress on more contentious and politically difficult issues such as reaching a political settlement with Tamil elected representatives and holding accountable those alleged to have been involved in human rights violations and other abuses during the conflict.
Geography and Location
Area: total: 65,610 sq km
land: 64,630 sq km
water: 980 sq km
country comparison to the world: 122
Coastline: 1,340 km
Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nm
contiguous zone: 24 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
Climate: tropical monsoon; northeast monsoon (December to March); southwest monsoon (June to October)
Terrain: mostly low, flat to rolling plain; mountains in south-central interior
Elevation: mean elevation: 228 m
elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pidurutalagala 2,524 m
Natural resources: limestone, graphite, mineral sands, gem s, phosphates, clay, hydropower, arable land
Land use: agricultural land: 43.5%
arable land: 20.7%
permanent crops: 15.8%
permanent pasture: 7%
forest: 29.4%
other: 27.1% (2011 est.)
Irrigated land: 5,700 sq km (2012)
Total renewable water resources: 52.8 cu km (2011)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 12.95 cu km/yr (6%/6%/87%)
per capita: 638.8 cu m/yr (2005)
Natural hazards: occasional cyclones and tornadoes
Environment—current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by poaching and urbanization; coastal degradation from mining activities and increased pollution; freshwater resources being polluted by industrial wastes and sewage runoff; waste disposal; air pollution in Colombo
Environment—International agreements: party to:Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Marine Life Conservation
Geography—note: strategic location near major Indian Ocean sea lanes
People
Nationality: noun: Sri Lankan(s)
adjective: Sri Lankan
Ethnic groups: Sinhalese 74.9%, Sri Lankan Tamil 11.2%, Sri Lankan Moors 9.2%, Indian Tamil 4.2%, other 0.5% (2012 est.)
Languages: Sinhala (official and National language) 74%, Tamil (National language) 18%, other 8%
note: English, spoken competently by about 10% of the population, is commonly used in government and is referred to as the link language in the constitution
Religions: Buddhist (official) 70.2%, Hindu 12.6%, Muslim 9.7%, Roman Catholic 6.1%, other Christian 1.3%, other 0.05% (2012 est.)
Population: 22,053,488 (July 2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 57
Age structure: 0–14 years: 24.58% (male 2,764,848/female 2,655,218)
15–24 years: 14.77% (male 1,652,884/female 1,604,089)
25–54 years: 41.9% (male 4,523,146/female 4,718,156)
55–64 years: 9.72% (male 992,750/female 1,149,828)
65 years and over: 9.04% (male 847,805/female 1,144,764) (2015 est.)
Dependency ratios: total dependency ratio: 51.2%
youth dependency ratio: 37.2%
elderly dependency ratio: 14.1%
potential support ratio: 7.1% (2015 est.)
Median age: total: 32.1 years
male: 30.9 years
female: 33.3 years (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 94
Population growth rate: 0.84% (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 131
Birth rate: 15.85 births/1,000 population (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 124
Death rate: 6.11 deaths/1,000 population (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 159
Net migration rate: -1.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 154
Urbanization: urban population: 18.4% of total population (2015)
rate of urbanization: 0.72% annual rate of change (2010–15 est.)
Major urban areas—population: Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (legislative capital) 128,000 (2014); COLOMBO (capital) 707,000 (2015)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.04 male(s)/female
total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2015 est.)
Mother’s mean age at first birth: 25.4
note: Median Age at first birth among women 30–34 (2006/07 est.)
Maternal mortality rate: 30 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 118
Infant mortality rate: total: 8.8 deaths/1,000 live births
male: 9.75 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 7.82 deaths/1,000 live births (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 146
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 76.56 years
male: 73.06 years
female: 80.19 years (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 84
Total fertility rate: 2.1 children born/woman (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 106
Health expenditures: 3.2% of GDP (2013)
country comparison to the world: 177
Physicians density: 0.68 physicians/1,000 population (2010)
Hospital bed density: 3.6 beds/1,000 population (2012)
Drinking water source:
improved:
urban: 98.5% of population
rural: 95% of population
total: 95.6% of population
unimproved:
urban: 1.5% of population
rural: 5% of population
total: 4.4% of population (2015 est.)
Sanitation facility access:
improved:
urban: 88.1% of population
rural: 96.7% of population
total: 95.1% of population
unimproved:
urban: 11.9% of population
rural: 3.3% of population
total: 4.9% of population (2015 est.)
Major infectious diseases: degree of risk: high
food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea and hepatitis A
vector borne disease: dengue fever
water contact disease: leptospirosis animal contact disease: rabies (2013)
Children under the age of 5 years underweight:26.3% (2012)
country comparison to the world: 23
Education expenditures: 1.6% of GDP (2013)
country comparison to the world: 168
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write
total population: 92.6%
male: 93.6%
female: 91.7% (2015 est.)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education): total: 14 years
male: 14 years
female: 14 years (2013)
Unemployment, youth ages 15–24: total: 20.1%
male: 15%
female: 27.8% (2013 est.)
country comparison to the world: 69
Government and Politics
Country name: conventional long form: Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
conventional short form: Sri Lanka
local long form: Shri Lanka Prajatantrika Samajavadi Janarajaya/Ilankai Jananayaka Choshalichak Kutiyarachu
local short form: Shri Lanka/Ilankai
former: Serendib, Ceylon
note: the name means “resplendent island” in Sanskrit
Government type: presidential republic
Capital: name: Colombo; note—Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte is the legislative capital
Administrative divisions: 9 provinces; Central, Eastern, North Central, Northern, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva, Western
Independence: 4 February 1948 (from the UK)
National holiday: Independence Day, 4 February (1948)
Constitution: several previous; latest adopted 16 August 1978, certified 31 August 1978; amended many times, last in 2015 (2016)
Legal system: mixed legal system of Roman-Dutch civil law, English common law, and Jaffna Tamil customary law
International law organization participation: has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: President Maithripala SIRISENA (since 9 January 2015); note—the president is both chief of state and head of government; Ranil WICKREMESINGHE (since 9 January 2015) holds the title of prime minister
head of government: President Maithripala SIRISENA (since 9 January 2015)
cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president in consultation with the prime minister
elections/appointments: president directly elected by preferential majority popular vote for a 6-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 8 January 2015 (next to be held by January 2021); note—the January 2015 election was held nearly 2 years ahead of schedule
election results: Maithripala SIRISENA elected president; percent of vote—Maithripala SIRISENA (Sri Lanka Freedom Party) 51.3%, Mahinda Percy RAJAPAKSA (Sri Lanka Freedom Party) 47.6%, other 1.1%
Legislative branch: description: unicameral Parliament (225 seats; 196 members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by proportional representation vote using a preferential method in which voters select 3 candidates in order of preference; remaining 29 seats allocated to other political parties and groups in proportion to share of National vote; members serve 6-year terms)
elections: last held on 17 August 2015 following President SIRISENA’s dissolution of Parliament in late June in an effort to consolidate power and pass reform as (next to be held in 2021)
election results: percent of vote by alliance/party—EYJP 45.7%, UPFA 42.4%, JVP 4.9%, TNA 4.6%, SLMC 0.4%, EPDP 0.3% other 1.7%; seats by alliance/party EYJP 106, UPFA 95, TNA 16, JVP 6, SLMC 1, EPDP 1
Judicial branch: highest court(s): Supreme Court of the Republic (consists of the chief justice and 10 justices);
note—the court has exclusive jurisdiction to review legislation
judge selection and term of office: the chief justice appointed by the president; the other justices appointed by the president with the advice of the chief justice; all justices hold office until age 65
subordinate courts: Court of Appeals; High Courts; Magistrate’s Courts; municipal and primary courts
Political parties and leaders: Eelam People’s Democratic Party or EPDP
Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna or JVP [Anura Kumara DISSANAYAKE]
Jathika Hela Urumaya or JHU [Patali Champika RANAWAKA]
Sri Lanka Freedom Party or SLFP [Maithripala SIRISENA]
Sri Lanka Muslim Congress or SLMC [Rauff HAKEEM]
Tamil National Alliance or TNA [R. SAMPANTHAN]
United National Front for Good Governance or EYJP (coalition includes UNP)
United National Party or UNP [Ranil WICKREMESIN GH E]
United People’s Freedom Alliance or UPFA (coalition includes SLFP)
Political pressure groups and leaders: Buddhist clergy Sinhalese Buddhist lay groups
other: labor unions; hard-line Nationalist Sinhalese groups such as the National Movement Against Terrorism
International organization participation: ABEDA, ADB, ARF, BIMSTEC, C, CD, CICA (observer), CP, FAO, G-11, G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD,
ICAO, ICC (National committees), ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, MINURSO, MINUSTAH, MONUSCO, NAM, OAS (observer), OPCW, PCA, SAARC, SACEP, SCO (dialogue member), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNISFA, UNMISS, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Flag description: yellow with two panels; the smaller hoist-side panel has two equal vertical bands of green (hoist side) and orange; the other larger panel depicts a yellow lion holding a sword on a maroon rectangular field that also displays a yellow bo leaf in each corner; the yellow field appears as a border around the entire flag and extends between the two panels; the lion represents Sinhalese ethnicity, the strength of the nation, and bravery; the sword demonstrates the sovereignty of the nation; the four boleaves—symbolizing Buddhism and its influence on the country—stand for the four virtues of kindness, friendliness, happiness, and equanimity; orange signifies Sri Lankan Tamils, green Sri Lankan Moors, and maroon the Sinhalese majority; yellow denotes other Ethnic groups; also referred to as the Lion Flag
National symbol(s): lion, water lily; National colors: maroon, yellow
National anthem: name: “Sri Lanka Matha” (Mother Sri Lanka)
lyrics/music: Ananda SAMARKONE
note: adopted 1951
Economy
Economy—overview: Sri Lanka continues to experience strong economic growth following the end of the government’s 26-year conflict with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. The government has been pursuing large-scale reconstruction and development projects in its efforts to spur growth in war-torn and disadvantaged areas, develop small and medium enterprises, and increase agricultural productivity. The government’s high debt payments and bloated civil service have contributed to historically high budget deficits and low tax revenues remain a concern. Government debt of about 72% of GDP remains among the highest in emerging markets. The new government in 2015 drastically increased wages for public sector employees, which boosted demand for consumer goods but hurt the overall balance of payments and reduced foreign exchange reserves.
GDP (purchasing power parity): $223 billion (2015 est.)
$212 billion (2014 est.)
$203 billion (2013 est.)
note: data are in 2015 US dollars
country comparison to the world: 63
GDP (official exchange rate): $82.1 billion (2015 est.)
GDP—real growth rate: 5.2% (2015 est.)
4.5% (2014 est.)
3.4% (2013 est.)
country comparison to the world: 38
GDP—per capita (PPP): $10,600 (2015 est.)
$10,100 (2014 est.)
$9,700 (2013 est.)
note: data are in 2015 US dollars
country comparison to the world: 135
Gross National saving: 25.8% of GDP (2015 est.)
24.7% of GDP (2014 est.)
26.1% of GDP (2013 est.)
country comparison to the world: 45
$212 billion (2014 est.)
$203 billion (2013 est.)
note: data are in 2015 US dollars
country comparison to the world: 63
GDP (official exchange rate): $82.1 billion (2015 est.)
GDP—real growth rate: 5.2% (2015 est.)
4.5% (2014 est.)
3.4% (2013 est.)
country comparison to the world: 38
GDP—per capita (PPP): $10,600 (2015 est.)
$10,100 (2014 est.)
$9,700 (2013 est.)
note: data are in 2015 US dollars
country comparison to the world: 135
Gross National saving: 25.8% of GDP (2015 est.)
24.7% of GDP (2014 est.)
26.1% of GDP (2013 est.)
country comparison to the world: 45
GDP—composition, by sector of origin:
agriculture: 8.1%
industry: 29.1%
services: 62.8% (2015 est.)
Agriculture—products: rice, sugarcane, grains, pulses, oilseed, spices, vegetables, fruit, tea, rubber, coconuts; milk, eggs, hides, beef; fish
Industries: processing of rubber, tea, coconuts, tobacco and other agricultural commodities; telecommunications, insurance, banking; tourism, shipping; clothing, textiles; cement, petroleum refining, information technology services, construction
Industrial production growth rate: 2.7% (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 96
Labor force: 8.928 million (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 56
Labor force—by occupation: agriculture: 28.4%
industry: 25.7%
services: 45.9% (30 Jun 2015)
Unemployment rate: 4.2% (2015 est.)
4.3% (2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 39
Population below poverty line: 8.9% (2010 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest: 10%: 1.6%
highest: 10%: 39.5% (2009)
Distribution of family income—Gini index: 49 (2010) 46 (1995)
country comparison to the world: 23
Budget: revenues: $9.785 billion
expenditures: $15.38 billion (2015 est.)
Taxes and other revenues: 12.3% of GDP (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 206
Budget surplus (+) or deficit (–): -7% of GDP (2015 est.)
country comparison to the world: 191
Public debt: 74.7% of GDP (2015 est.)
71.8% of GDP (2014 est.)
note: covers central government debt, and excludes debt instruments directly owned by government entities other than the treasury (e.g. commercial bank borrowings of a government corporation); the data includes treasury debt held by foreign entities as well as intra-governmental debt; intra-governmental debt consists of treasury borrowings from surpluses in the social funds, such as for retirement; sub-national entities are usually not permitted to sell debt instruments
country comparison to the world: 38
Fiscal year: calendar year
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.9% (2015 est.) 3.3% (2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 75
Market value of publicly traded shares: $18.48 billion (31 November 2013 est.)
$17.05 billion (31 December 2012)
$19.44 billion (31 Decem ber 2011 est.)
country comparison to the world: 67
Current account balance: -$1.681 billion (2015 est.)
-$2.018 billion (2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 141
Exports: $11.28 billion (2015 est.)
$11.13 billion (2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 85
Exports—commodities: textiles and apparel, tea and spices; rubber manufactures; precious stones; coconut products, fish
Exports—partners: US 26.1%, UK 9%, India 7.2%, Germany 4.3% (2015)
Imports: $20.14 billion (2015 est.)
$19.42 billion (2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 74
Imports—commodities: petroleum, textiles, machinery and transportation equipment, building materials, mineral products, food stuffs
Imports—partners: India 24.6%, China 20.6%, UAE 7.1%, Singapore 5.9%, Japan 5.7% (2015)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $7.065 billion (31 December 2015 est.)
$8.209 billion (31 December 2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 87
Debt—external: $45 billion (31 December 2015 est.)
$42 billion (31 December 2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 65
Exchange rates: Sri Lankan rupees (LKR) per US dollar—
140 (2015 est.)
130.57 (2014 est.)
130.57 (2013 est.)
127.6 (2012 est.)
110.57 (2011 est.)
ENERGY
Electricity—production: 11.36 billion kWh (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 94
Electricity—consumption: 10.17 billion kWh (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 89
Electricity—installed generating capacity: 3.373 million kW (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 89
Electricity—from fossil fuels: 51.1% of total installed capacity (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 147
Electricity—from hydroelectric plants: 47% of total installed capacity (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 52
Electricity—from other renewable sources: 1.9% of total installed capacity (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 81
Crude oil—imports: 32,520 bbl/day (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 59
Refined petroleum products—production: 31,150 bbl/day (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 86
Refined petroleum products—consumption: 108,000 bbl/day (2013 est.)
country comparison to the world: 77
Refined petroleum products—imports: 72,790 bbl/day (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 62
Carbon dioxide emissions from consumption of energy: 15.23 million Mt (2012 est.)
country comparison to the world: 91
Communications and Transport
Telephone—fixed lines: total subscriptions: 2.7 million
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 12 (2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 52
Telephones—mobile cellular: total: 22.1 million
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 101 (2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 55
Telephone system: general assessment: telephone services have improved significantly and are available in most parts of the country
domestic: national trunk network consists mostly of digital microwave radio relay; fiber-optic links now in use in Colombo area and fixed wireless local loops have been installed; competition is strong in mobile cellular systems and mobile cellular subscribership is increasing
international: country code—94; the SEA-ME-WE-3 and SEA-ME-WE-4 submarine cables provide connectivity to Asia, Australia, Middle East, Europe, US; satellite earth stations—2 intelsat (Indian Ocean) (2011)
Broadcast media: government operates 8 TV channels and a radio network; multi-channel satellite and cable TV subscription services available; 35 private TV stations and about 50 radio stations (2012)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 15, FM 52, shortwave 4 (2007)
Television broadcast stations: 12 (2009)
Internet country code: .lk
Internet hosts: 9,552 (2012)
country comparison to the world: 136
Internet users: total: 4.4 million
percent of population: 19.9% (2014 est.)
country comparison to the world: 74
Railways: total: 1,447 km
broad gauge: 1,447 km 1.676-m gauge (2014)
country comparison to the world: 79
Roadways: total: 114,093 km
paved: 16,977 km
unpaved: 97,116 km (2010)
country comparison to the world: 41
Waterways: 160 km (primarily on rivers in southwest) (2012)
country comparison to the world: 100
Merchant marine: total: 21
by type: bulk carrier 4, cargo 13, chemical tanker 1, container 1, petroleum tanker 2
foreign-owned: 8 (Germany 8) (2010)
country comparison to the world: 94
Ports and terminals: major seaport(s): Colombo
container port(s) (TEUs): Colombo (3,651,963)
Defense and Security
Military branches: Sri Lanka Army, Sri Lanka Navy, Sri Lanka Air Force, Sri Lanka Coast Guard (2015)
Military service age and obligation: 18–22 years of age for voluntary military service; no conscription; 5-year service obligation (Air Force) (2012)
Military expenditures: 2.43% of GDP (2012)
2.89% of GDP (2011)
2.43% of GDP (2010)
country comparison to the world: 29
Disputes—International: none
Refugees and internally displaced persons: IDPs: 44,934 (civil war; more than half displaced prior to 2008; many of the more than 480,000 IDPs registered as returnees have not reached durable solutions) (2015)
Trafficking in persons: current situation: Sri Lanka is primarily a source and, to a lesser extent, a destination country for men, women, and children subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking; some Sri Lankan adults and children who migrate willingly to the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Afghanistan to work in the construction, garment, and domestic service sectors are subsequently subjected to forced labor or debt bondage (incurred through high recruitment fees or money advances); some Sri Lankan women are forced into prostitution in Jordan, Maldives, Malaysia, Singapore, and other countries; within Sri Lanka, women and children are subjected to sex trafficking, and children are also forced to beg and work in the agriculture, fireworks, and fish-drying industries; a small number of women from Asia, Central Asia, Europe, and the Middle East have been forced into prostitution in Sri Lanka in recent years tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List—Sri Lanka does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; however, it is making significant efforts to do so; in 2014, Sri Lanka was granted a waiver from an otherwise required downgrade to Tier 3 because its government has a written plan that, if implemented, would constitute making significant efforts to bring itself into compliance with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking; law enforcement continues to demonstrate a lack of understanding of trafficking crimes and inadequate investigations, relying on trafficking cases to be prosecuted under the procurement statute rather than the trafficking statute, which carries more stringent penalties; authorities convicted only one offender under the procurement statue, a decrease from 2013; the government approved guidelines for the identification of victims and their referral to protective services but failed to ensure that victims were not jailed and charged for crimes committed as a direct result of being trafficked; no government employees were investigated or prosecuted, despite allegations of complicity (2015)
